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Pasta Raw Materials |
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 A characteristic common to all pasta is the initial preparation of dough that can be extruded or drawn to obtain the desired shapes. The components of the dough are normally semolina (flour) and water, or semolina (flour), water and eggs. The only components that are always present, because they are indispensable, are semolina (flour) and water. All the other ingredients added, from eggs to squid ink, are just optional ingredients that can be of greater or lesser importance and/or add character.
Water is not an ingredient in dry pasta given that it is used to shape the dough and then removed during the drying process.
It has a purely technological function. In this type of pasta, the only ingredient is semolina. Instead, the water used in fresh pasta not only has a technological function, but gives a specific organoleptic characteristic to the finished product.
The water from fresh eggs or from pasteurized egg mixes is certainly different from the water taken directly from the tap. Semolina and water not only make up pasta, but also make the difference between one pasta and another.
Semolina and flour are obtained by milling wheat. Everyone knows that the grains cultivated or cultivatable on our planet are vast and varied. The same can be said for semolina and flour.
Everyone also knows that the principal classification for grains distinguishes between the "soft" ones and the "durum" ones. And finally everyone knows that by milling soft grains you obtain flour and by milling hard grains you obtain semolina. Flour, by classic standards, are good for making leavened products (bread, biscuits, baked desserts, etc.). On the other hand, semolina, are destined to the pasta factories.
Naturally, this thesis is true, but not absolute. Semolina can be used to make bread, or flour can be used to make pasta.
Wheat and how it is milled is the starting point to distinguish the flour and the semolina that are "good" for bread from the ones that are "good" for pasta. |
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>>> Grain and wheat flour
The kernel of wheat |
 The caryopsis of the wheat (grain) is structured as in the diagram we have published, independently of whether it is "durum" or "soft", or whether it is cultivated in the great flood plains of the Ukraine, or in the ex-prairies of North America.
Wheat feeds the vast majority of the inhabitants of the planet (along with rice and corn). It is certainly the most important of all the cereals. For this reason men of science have explored its caryopsis in the deepest and most intimate of details: they know every little secret and they have analyzed each and every cell.
For millers, the caryopsis is a small masterpiece of nature made up of external layers and an internal kernel.
The layers and the kernel are shown in the drawing with their proper names. From the wheat caryopsis, the mill must obtain flour (or semolina), trying to reconcile the yield from milling with the quality of the product obtained. "Yield" simply means that the more flour (or semolina) you obtain from the grain, the greater the gain from both a productive and economic standpoint. On the other hand, "quality" refers to the fact that the flour (or semolina) must be as well suited as possible for its intended use (bread, pasta, etc.).
It is obvious that the "quality" does not depend on (or does not only depend on) the "yield", but mainly on the chemical-physical and original intrinsic characteristics of the milled wheat in addition to the technology and the machines used for this purpose.
The external layers and the internal kernel of the grain have their own specific chemical and morphological characteristics. In the external layers of the caryopsis, the chemical characteristics are given by the concentration of cellulose (fibre), minerals, and protein. In the internal kernel, the presence of starches is dominant. There is a third, distinct part of the caryopsis, the "germ". It is the embryo destined to create a new plant (let's not forget that the caryopsis of the wheat is a seed …).
The wheat germ is, from a chemical and nutritional standpoint, an absolute masterpiece. Unfortunately, however, it is rich in fats that can easily go rancid. For this reason, during milling, it must be removed from each grain so that its fats are not lost in the flour (or in the semolina) making preservation precarious.
The "strategic" objective of modern wheat milling (for both soft and durum wheat) is the internal kernel of the grain, a concentration of starches that, in addition to another basic chemical component, protein, make up the nutritional (and technological) nucleus of the wheat and the products obtained from milling wheat.
The phases of wheat milling are summarized in the published diagram, based on a durum wheat mill (production of semolina). For the most part, these phases can also be considered for the milling of soft wheat and for the production of flour.
Chemical composition of soft wheat and durum wheat
 The external part of the grain (pericarp and perisperm) is formed by different layers of intercrossing cellulose. The chemical composition of the grain is made up of cellulose, minerals (bran) and protein with a high biological value. However, due to the low sifting rates of the flour (and the semolina), the protein is practically lost.
The external part of the wheat caryopsis is largely made up of indigestible and irritating parts (cellulose and lignin) as well as minerals (ashes) that can interact, creating undesirable compositions during the technological production processes of both dried and fresh pasta. From a technological standpoint, the low sifting of the flour and the semolina determines a "rational" sacrifice of the biodynamic components present in the external layers of the caryopsis (the protein in the aleuronic layer). A good percentage of these components are, however, present in more highly sifted flour (and semolina).
In modern mills (high milling) the sifting rate determines the type of flour and semolina.
The relationship between the principal chemical characteristics of the flour and the sifting rate are very close, even if these characteristics always depend on the intrinsic characteristics of the grains that are milled.
That is, with a 50% sifting rate, the parts farthest from the floury kernel or the layers nearest to the cortical part of the grain will be excluded from the flour. More than for the flours subjected to a 72% or 80% sifting rate, in which the percentage of the parts closest to the external layers of the caryopsis is obviously greater.
To clarify this basic but important concept, see table 1, the cross-section of the wheat caryopsis indicating the concentration of the chemical elements that most interest the flour and the semolina intended for use in making pasta.
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>>> Durum wheat and semolina
A brief introduction to Durum wheat and semolina the raw materials for quality pasta |
Durum wheat is a major staple in pasta production. Several Countries (Italy, France and Greece first) have decreed that pasta be produced from Durum wheat only and that the use of other cereals not mentioned be considered a fraud. Other Countries (Spain, United States, Canada) although they don't have a specific law on the matter, consume traditionally and by choice a lot of pasta made from Durum wheat only. In fact, the quality requirements of pasta are wholly satisfied by Durum wheat only.
These quality aspects, all measurable by special instruments or by organoleptic and sensorial methods, are correlated with the following characteristics:
1 Raw materials (Durum wheat and semolina) fit for the required end quality
2 Valid transformation technologies
3 Management of systems and operators focused on quality, i.e. aimed at making operators at any levels responsible for the achievement of quality targets
By this brief introduction to pasta raw materials we intend to face the problems related with Durum wheat and the semolina obtained from it by milling.
As far as pasta produced in Italy is concerned, to meet the domestic demand for premium quality pasta some suitable varieties of wheat have been selected, many of which are being grown in Italy with high yields. Durum wheat was originally grown in Southern Italy only; part of the wheat was imported from northern America, Argentina, Northern Africa and Ukraine. The varieties grown at present have a far rooted history as they come from wild ecotypes harvested by man since the Neolithic age. These prehistoric ecotypes, some of which still existing, have given origin to today wheats for a surprising phenomenon of summing up of cell chromosomes.
To reproduce itself, in fact, a cell must be provided with a double series of chromosomes: on reproduction, the "daughter" cell receives half the chromosomal heritage of each "parent". In the case of wheat, from two different species, the Triticum monococcum and the Aegilops speltoides, each being provided with a double heritage of 7 chromosomes, which makes 14 chromosomes, the new species Triticum dicoccum formed through hybridization, featuring four series of 7 chromosomes, i.e. 28 chromosomes, called tetraploids. This cereal is the today "spelt", the wheat of Pharaohs, its name conveying by itself the idea of how ancient its hybridization is. A later hybridization occurred with another wild graminaceous plant of the Mediterranean basin, the Aegilops squarrosa, featuring two series of 7 chromosomes. The hybrid resulting, the present Triticum aestivum, has 6 series of 7 chromosomes, which totalizes 42 chromosomes, and is called "exaploids" (soft wheat).
The new knowledge available in the genetic field has greatly contributed to the selection of varieties within the Triticum durum species; they show striking differences. Of key importance for the production of pasta are the physical properties of the proteins forming the gluten. It is thought that the presence of certain proteins can be related to extremely precise physical characteristics, such as elasticity. The producer ability lies in the capability to identify there parameters and choose the lots of wheat best suiting his own mark, accordingly.
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>>> Milling operations
Wheat milling
 The diagram is based on the operational and functional phases of an average mill, specifically as regards the milling of durum wheat for the production of semolina intended for use in making pasta.
As mentioned, it could also be based on the phases of a mill for soft wheat. Since we are talking about making pasta, it is only correct to give preference to semolina, even if the use of soft wheat in making fresh pasta is just as important.
The diagram gives all the indications needed to understand how a mill works. However, it is useful to highlight some of the phases.
Cleaning
In modern mills cleaning is carried out with a dry method, using specialized systems. Cleaning removes large impurities (rocks or their fragments, iron residues, other foreign bodies, straw, etc.) and the smaller or very small and lightweight impurities, such as fine dust, insect fragments and eggs, various types of dirt particles, etc. as well as removing specific parts of the caryopsis (for example the beards).
The techniques used are especially sophisticated and are based on the exploiting the characteristics of the wheat in ratio to those of the impurities and foreign bodies (dimensions, particular shapes, differences in specific weight, magnetism, etc.). Cleaning (followed by a filth test, i.e. checking for the presence of residual dirt) is of fundamental importance to the final characteristics of the product as regards ashes and the presence of microorganisms.
Grinding
Can be preceded by conditioning operations (temperature and humidity of the grain before passing through the rolling mill). The correct amount of superficial humidity of the grains favours the first breaking phase of the grains, in which the larger parts of the bran are separated from the endosperm. Passage through the rolling mills is alternated with sifting phases carried out by the plansichters and the purifiers.
The plansichters, which are made up of superposed sieves of decreasing mesh size and made to oscillate by mechanical means, have the task of separating the ground wheat with respect to the dimensions of its particles. The product that comes out of the plansichters is then conveyed, by pneumatic transport devices, to the next phases of the milling process shown in the diagram. One of the important "technological" qualities required in semolina and in flour intended for use in making pasta (both dried and fresh pasta) is the low level of damage to the starches.
 It is evident that such "brutal" treatment of the grain as occurs in grinding cannot help but cause undesired damage to the crystalline structure of the starches.
The excessive amount of damage to the grain is the cross pasta makers must bear. In particular, the current tendency of obtaining semolina with finely sized particles (required by the techniques for the rapid preparation of dough and by "quick" drying technology, at very high temperatures) puts the art of the modern miller to the test. Most certainly, the milling systems have evolved and been perfected, but the problem has not been completely solved. Damage to the starches exposes them to enzymatic activity that causes the formation of reducing sugars (see the note in the table on the chemical composition of wheat) that, in turn, are very harmful to the pasta.
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>>> The principal analyses on the chemical and rheological characteristics of semolina and soft wheat flour
There are some chemical and physical characteristics of semolina and flour that heavily influence the final quality of both dried and fresh pasta, but in this presentation, for simplicity, no specific reference is made to the official procedures set by the law.
Structure of the chapter |
| Chemical characteristics |
Rheological characteristics |
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Chemical characteristics
Determination of the moisture
The most common method is based on the evaporation, in a temperature-controlled environment, of the water contained in the flour. And so on the difference between the initial weight and the final weight. If correctly applied, this method gives very accurate results. The equipment used is a thermo-scale, an instrument that cannot be missing from the laboratory of a pasta factory. Another faster method is to measure the percent humidity by taking advantage of the dielectric losses: the semolina or the flour is placed between the plates of a condenser, being a dielectric material, and subjected to an electrical charge. The losses are proportional to the presence of water, so the humidity can be measured by an electronic circuit and read on an analogue instrument, or visualized on a digital display. The equipment that uses this principle is less accurate than the thermo-scale, but is small and compact can be portable and the readings are almost immediate. As for accuracy, as everyone knows, electronic technology has made miracles…
Knowing the humidity of semolina or flour with accuracy makes it possible to calibrate the humidity of the dough "to the gram", or to know exactly how many eggs and how much water to add to obtain a dough with the desired humidity, without running the risk of miscalculating the dosage as can happen if the humidity does not correspond with the one stated on the label or assumed. It also makes it possible to optimize the amount of time it takes to prepare the dough.
Determination of the ashes
The method is simple but requires specialized equipment. The semolina is placed inside of a calibrated platinum capsule and then burned with an open flame until it is incinerated. Then the capsule is placed in a muffle kiln, i.e. an oven made of refractory material in which the treated material (in this case what remains of the incinerated flour) is protected and isolated from the heat source. The temperature of the oven (and the capsule) must reach approximately 600°C, and then the capsule is weighed. The weight is based on 100 grams of dry flour.
For the ashes, i.e. the minerals present in the semolina and the flour, the pasta makers who do not have this equipment have to trust the values stated by the mill.
Determination of the gluten
This is an analysis that all pasta makers, whether small or large, must know. Naturally, the obvious premise is understanding what gluten is and how it is formed. For those who need a revision we will prepared a data sheet that is simple but sufficient for this purpose. The procedure for the determination of gluten bases itself on the principle that this protein is insoluble in the presence of saline solutions. In laboratory practice the required solution is prepared by mixing two different solutions, one with 4% monosodium and disodium phosphate, calibrated to a pH of 6.8 and one with 2% sodium chloride. There is gluten washing equipment that washes the samples of dough automatically using the above solution. Because the gluten is insoluble, washing will eliminate all the components (starch) except for the gluten, which can be weighed when the washing operation has been completed. Naturally, the remaining gluten contains a significant amount of water (of which it is especially greedy) so, in fact, what we obtain from washing the dough is wet gluten. To establish the quantity of dry gluten, the wet gluten must be dried by placing it in an airtight container that is heated to 80°C. Once the gluten has dried, it is weighed and the weight, multiplied by 4, will give the percentage of gluten in the semolina or the flour.
Isolating the gluten from the dough is a simple operation. It can be carried out by anyone manually (click here) without any special requirements and in a short amount of time. From the wet gluten one can get a practical and immediate indication of its principal properties, the elasticity and the strength, as well as a good approximation of the quantity. In short, a useful test.
Determination of the total nitrogenous substances (proteins)
The most widespread method is the Kjeldahl method, based on three fundamental phases: the chemical attack of the nitrogenous substances contained in the semolina or flour, the distillation of gases extracted by the chemical reagents used, the titration of the distillates. In addition to specific types of equipment, the method obviously requires specialized personnel. Since some of the gases are highly toxic, special precautions and safety devices must be adopted. At the conclusion of the procedure, a percent value of nitrogen is obtained from which, using a specific coefficient for the product analyzed, the protein content is determined. The specific coefficient for wheat flours is 5.7. This coefficient must appear immediately after the N symbol for nitrogen each time the protein content is referred to in semolina or flour as well as in products that derive from them such as, of course, pasta.
The protein content is not only a useful parameter for determining nutritional value, but also gives important technological indications, given that the protein fraction indicated for a semolina or a flour (for example Nx5.7 = 10.5) also includes gluten, which can be determined separately as we have just seen. The difference between the determined value for gluten alone and the entire protein fraction indicates the percentage of amino acids present different from the glutenin and gliadin (components of gluten) normally present in wheat.
Rheologic characteristics
Semolina or flour rheologic characteristics
These characteristics have to do with the behaviour of the dough with respect to elasticity and viscosity. It is clear how these characteristics are important to the final quality of the pasta as well as to the management of the processing phase. The possibility of foreseeing the behaviour of the semolina or the flour is a great advantage. The pasta maker, therefore, must know how to interpret the data concerning the rheological characteristics of the raw material that the mill supplies or that the mill will supply on specific request. Reading the data will allow the pasta maker, for a certain level of dough consistency, to know the quantity of water absorbed, to foresee the amount of time it takes for development, stability and softening. The pasta maker will be able to know the extensibility of pasta dough and its resistance. Finally, the pasta maker can establish the level of the alpha-amylase enzyme activity and consequently predict the alterations such activity can cause in the finished product.
Since we are interested in the rheological characteristics of raw materials for pasta, we have listed the instruments that are commonly used to measure them: the farinograph, the estensograph, and the alveograph, as well as the "falling number" method
The farinograph
This piece of equipment measures the consistency of the dough and the quantity of water it requires. The principle on which it is based is to refer to the resistance of the dough to a certain mechanical stress applied by keeping the various components of the stress constant (for example the mixing speed) as well as the conditions in which this stress is applied (for example temperature). The farinograph makes a certain quantity of dough and simultaneously plots the graph on a roll of millimetric paper.
A typical farinogram graph is shown complete with capital letters indicating to which parameters specific parts of the graph refer (click here).
Let's try and understand the graph by following the path of the pen point that, through a special mechanism, is connected to the blades used in the preparation of the dough.
The farinogram curve rises until it reaches a maximum peak that corresponds to the point at which the dough reaches its maximum consistency. From the moment the dough starts to form, it causes an ever increasing resistance to the rotation of the blades so the graph recorded by the pen point progressively widens given that it will have an oscillation that is proportional to the resistance. The maximum amplitude of the graph corresponds to the maximum resistance with which the dough opposes the rotation of the blades. As time proceeds, the resistance starts to decrease with a progression that the pen point will faithfully record.
The graph will indicate the stability of the dough (constant amplitude) and the degree of softening (decreasing amplitude). As the dough gets weaker, the pen point will plot lines that are more and more jagged.
The extensigraph
 This piece of equipment measures the extensibility of the different types of dough obtained from soft wheat flours and their resistance at resting conditions.
The use of the extensigraph is connected to the farinograph because the dough that is used has been taken from the farinograph, with which it will have been possible to measure the exact amount of water absorbed.
The dough is manipulated until if forms a cylindrical strip that is placed inside the instrument. The strip is then fixed at either end with suitable clamps.
The dough is stretched with a device that is moved at constant speed. The resistance with which the dough opposes this movement is transmitted to an equalizer that records it onto a sliding roll of millimetric paper by pen point. A characteristic curve is obtained whose points are measured in specific values (U.E.). A typical estensigram curve is shown with a graph of the resistance and the extensibility. The extensigram values are mainly obtained by taking an average of repeated tests, allowing the dough to rest for different amounts of time. Actually, the extensigraph is mostly important for measuring the extensibility and the resistance of the dough at different fermentation levels.
The alveograph
 The Chopin alveograph measures the strength of the dough and its extensibility by using a principle very similar to the one on which the estensograph is based, but with a different applied mechanism.
Using four pieces of dough, which have been prepared separately, a rotating platform shapes four round discs whose thickness can be varied. The discs are placed on a plate equipped with a device that pushes pressurized air against the discs, forming a bubble that expands until it breaks.
The expansion of the dough (from the time it starts to blow up until the bubble breaks) is recorded, as always, onto a roll of millimetric paper by pen point that plots the four corresponding graphs, whose readings overlap.
The graph obtained gives three values for the dough: resistance to stretching, taken from the maximum height reached by the curve (P); extensibility, taken from the total length (L), (from the time it starts to blow up until the bubble breaks); strength, taken from the area under the alveogram, indicated by a "W" (cm2). The greater the reference area is, the higher the value of "W" will be. Because the maximum height of the curve is given by the total protein content of the flour, the P/L ratio of the Chopin alveograph is a very important piece of data on the gluten and the pasta making quality of the flour being tested. Analogously, the "W" value will indicate its strength, making it possible to extend judgement.
With W equal to or greater than 250 and P/L greater than 0.80 the quality is certainly good and the values show that the flour is obtained from strong grains. If the alveogram for your flour has a W that is less than 180 and a P/L less than 0.5 you would be better off by donating it to a charity, or, instead of making ravioli or macaroni, making sweet biscuits for morning breakfast.
The "falling number"
The amylase enzymes present in wheat (alpha- or beta-amylase) are very efficient catalysts: in fact, they can attack the long and complex chains that make up the starch molecules and split them up, converting starch into reducing sugars and maltose. The activity of these two enzymes is fairly scarce with regards to whole starches at normal room temperatures. Things change in regards to damaged starches (this inevitably happens to the grain during grinding…) or at temperatures above normal room temperatures. The alpha-amylase enzyme, for example, between 55 and 80°C easily converts the starch into dextrin, i.e. into mixtures of by-products from the demolition of starch.
The amylase enzymes always have a negative effect on the dough made from flour and semolina. It is necessary to limit as much as possible the presence of reducing sugars in flour as a consequence of damage to the starches if we do not want the pasta to go from being "colour pasta" to "black and white pasta". We would simply like to point out that the "falling number" is what tells us how things stand from this point of view.
The "falling number" measures the activity of the alpha-amylase. Since this enzyme becomes active at temperatures between 55 and 80°C and effects damaged starches above all, the falling number method uses the gelitinization (cooking) of the starches present in a suspension of water and flour. Once the starches have become gelitinized, they are hydrolyzed by the alpha-amylase, with a consequent liquefaction of the starch-water present in the suspension. The alpha-amylase activity is measured on this liquefaction. The final value oscillates on average between 100-150 and 300 or higher.
In other words: the "falling number" near, equal to, or greater than 300 indicates a weak or very weak alpha-amylase activity; between 200 and 250 indicates normal activity; between 150 and 200, or less than 150 indicates that the alpha-amylase activity is high or very high.
What it all comes down to
While durum wheat semolina intended for the production of dried or fresh pasta have, on average, good quality standards, the soft wheat flour used for making pasta has specific characteristics ranging from true quality to very low quality. For the most part, this is because normal bread-making flour is used for making pasta (above all fresh pasta). A flour that is excellent for making bread can be potentially dangerous for pasta. It is also important to remember that bread is leavened, baked and then sold, while pasta (and this is particularly important for fresh pasta) is neither leavened nor cooked before being sold. In fact, pasta is cooked at the end of its life cycle, just before having a fork stuck into it. The difference, from a microbiological point of view, is substantial.
In the first place, bread yeast is made up of "antagonist" microorganisms: i.e. the multiplication of the yeast inhibits the proliferation of other microorganisms, saprophytes or pathogens that they may be. In addition, baking bread, at very high ambient temperatures and for a long amount of time, can be considered to take the place of a super-pasteurization, which is why flour for bread is definitely less critical, from a microbiological point of view, than flour for pasta
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>>> Additives
DRY, FRESH AND STABILIZED PASTA -What additives are admitted in Italy and their use
Technological definitions of the additives admitted in pasta, dumplings (gnocchi)
and potato by-products
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Acidifiers
Substances that increase the acidity of a food product and/or give it a sour taste.
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Acidity correctors
Substances that modify or check the acidity or alkalinity
of a food product
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Antioxidants
Substances that prolong the validity period of food products, protecting them from deterioration caused by oxidation, like rancidity of fats and colour changes. |
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Emulsifiers
Substances that make it possible to produce or maintain a homogeneous mixture of one or more immiscible phases, such as oil and water, in a food product. |
Preservatives
Preservatives are substances that prolong the validity period of food products, protecting them from deterioration caused by microorganisms |
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Flavour enhancers
Substances that enhance the flavour and/or fragrance or both characteristics of a food product |
Additives in potato flakes
The main function of these additives concerns preventing rancidity of fats, i.e. as an antioxidant. |
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Sorbic acid
Sorbic acid belongs to the group of compounds, considered to be harmless, that form normal constituents of food and drink in the natural state. In the first place, it prevents the growth of mould, and above all, it acts as a block or barrier against the activity of clostridium, anaerobic bacteria that are generally responsible for phenomena that alter food substances stored in vacuum or in a protected atmosphere. The clostridium bacteria include pathogenic germs that are particularly harmful, like Clostridium perfrigens and Clostridium botulinum.
In the food industry, sorbic acid finds a variety of uses, both directly and in the form of its main salts (potassium sorbate, sodium sorbate and calcium sorbate). Its D.A.D (Daily Acceptable Dose) has been fixed by experts of the World Health Organisation in 12.5 mg per kg of body weight.
Its use is permitted in the filling for dry and fresh stuffed pasta and gnocchi packed at the origin, at the rate of 1 g/kg of filling or product (gnocchi).
Citric acid
This acid is present naturally in citrus fruits; it is used in the preparation of food products not only as an acidifying agent but also as an antioxidant or “synergist”, that is, as a substance that enhances the action of primary antioxidants. It performs this function in the preparation of wines and non-alcoholic drinks, as well as in the dairy, confectionery and vegetable preserves industry. Its use is permitted as an acidifier in filling for stuffed pasta, with a maximum dose of 0.25%. Its D.A.D. has been fixed by the WHO in 7 mg/kg of body weight. Its salts (sodium citrate, calcium citrate, potassium citrate) can be used in the same percentage dose.
Lactic acid
Lactic acid is also considered to be a harmless compound. Its D.A.D. is a few ten mg/kg of body weight. In nature, it is normally present among derivatives of fermented milk (for example, in yoghurt) or as the terminal product of the action of malic acid in wine (malolactic fermentation).
It is commonly used in dough for bread making, since one of its main properties is to render softness to the product (in the case of wines, it is referred to as “roundness”).
Lactic acid preserves products from softening; this is why it is used in vegetable preserves, such as “peeled tomatoes” or tomato pulp. Its use in the production of pasta, as an acidity corrector for fresh pasta, both for the “sfoglia” (rolled out sheet of finished pasta) and the filling, was introduced with Ministerial Decree No. 525/92. Apart from lactic acid, its salts can also be used (sodium, potassium, calcium lactate), with the dosage corresponding to the “SBTI” (Secondo Buona Tecnica Industriale - According to Good Industrial Practice) formula.
Acetic acid
Acetic acid, like sorbic acid and lactic acid, is also considered to be innocuous; in any case, it is a well known fact that this acid is naturally present in various combinations (for food substances) that have always been used by man, and finds widespread use in the preparation of domestic preserves.
Acetic acid (the chemically synthesised product) is used in bread-making in the confectionery industry, since it is capable of blocking the microbial flora that inhibits the action of yeast and thus prevents the dough from collapsing. The use of this substance as an acidity corrector in fresh pasta has been introduced by the Ministerial Decree No. 525/92. It can be used in the pasta as well as in the filling, with dosage corresponding to the “SBTI” formula.
Glucono-delta-lactone
This is an acidulating compound, partly also an antioxidant, used in the confectionery industry (bakery products) as an additive for fermentation, although this additive is better known for its flour-enhancing properties. It is in the form of a white powder easily soluble in water.
For fresh pasta (only those with filling) its technological function is as an acidity corrector, in the S.B.T.I. dosage.
L-ascorbic acid
L-ascorbic acid is probably the most important of natural antioxidants. Well known also as Vitamin C, it is widely present in nature, but the substance used in the food (and pharmaceuticals) industry is obtained by chemical synthesis. Its use in the food industry is widespread. In the baking industry, it is used as a flour enhancing or whitening agent, as a technological additive in bread making and confectionery (bakery products).
Some foreign researchers have highlighted how L-ascorbic acid, added in small amounts to the flour for preparing dough, has positive effects on gluten and consequently reduces the glueyness of pasta also improving its hold during cooking. This technological function becomes particularly important in the production of pasta (both dry and fresh) using milled wheat products. In fact, its use in pasta making has been widespread for a number of years in many European countries (especially in Eastern Europe), where the main raw material for the pasta is plain white flour. In Italy, its use is permitted only for fresh pasta (“sfoglia” and/or filling), according to the “sufficient quantity” formula.
L-ascorbic acid is generally considered to be harmless.
Tartaric acid
It is an acidifier that can be used to lower the pH of fresh pasta, by acting in such a manner as to provide a barrier against microbial growth and to favour microbial stabilisation of the product.
Its use is permitted according to the “sufficient quantity” formula: a rather haphazard attitude, whereby the “sufficient quantity” used is left to the discretion of the user, since the WHO has fixed the D.A.D. for man at 6 mg/kg of body weight. However, it is necessary to take into consideration that tartaric acid is widely present in nature, especially in grapes (and therefore in wine).
It is used in baking, as an acidity corrector, but also carries out a synergic action against primary antioxidants. It is common opinion that pasta can very well do without this additive (but we all know that opinions can change and, they are, after all, … only opinions).
Lecithins
Lecithin is a natural constituent of food oils and fats. Its main technological function is that of an “emulsifier”, but it also acts as an antioxidant. Its main use in the food industry concerns confectionery products, creams and vegetable preserves containing cocoa, ice creams, margarine and emulsified fats in general.
Its use in the production of fresh pasta can, however, be considered as “nonsense” for the Italian pasta maker, while it is not so (or is much less so) for other European pasta makers. Lecithin is, in fact, present in high concentrations in egg yolk; its use can therefore, to some extent, be justified if the number of eggs used is reduced (in Italy, for egg pasta, it is obligatory to use at least four eggs per kilogram of semolina or flour) or it is eliminated completely from the recipe.
Therefore, lecithin as an additive makes no sense in fresh pasta produced using eggs in Italy, since its use has always been included in the natural traditional formula of the product. The European pasta makers, however, are destined to enjoy the advantages of using this substance as an additive, as they can use fewer eggs than their Italian counterparts
Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids
The use of these additives has for some time been permitted in the production of dry and fresh pasta in many countries. The considerations made for lecithin are also valid for mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids. The use of whole fresh eggs is, in fact, a superior choice from the technological point of view, since this additive, after all, is a sort of surrogate.
In Italy, mono- and diglycerides are used in pastry-making (creams and bakery products), and in the production of extruded snacks. Mixtures of mono- and diglycerides are also used as additives in potato flour and flakes; they are therefore present in gnocchi, together with other permitted additives for these specific raw materials.
The mechanism of the action of these additives when used in pasta making was studied in detail from the technological point of view: when added to the dough for preparing the rolled out pasta sheets, they contribute to strengthening the numerous complex chemical bonds that make the gluten more elastic and resistant. But, in any case, this is still a technological role that fresh eggs can perform equally well, with the added advantage of a different contribution to increasing the nutritional value of the product.
From the health point of view, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids are considered to be harmless. The WHO has fixed the D.A.D in 125 mg/kg of body weight.
For this additive also the permitted use is according to the “sufficient quantity” formula.
Monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate (or MSG) is used as a “flavour enhancer” in the preparation of many food products. The most common use is that in meat-based products (canned meats, broth cubes), but it is also commonly found in sauces, rice and puffed sweet corn, vegetable preserves, cereal-based snacks and even in some drinks. In oriental cuisine, it is used to such a large extent that, around the Eighties, controversies concerning its presumed toxicity were based on the “Chinese restaurant syndrome” – a terrible headache seemed to affect those who ate at these restaurants where monosodium glutamate is used in abundance.
Actually, the WHO has fixed the D.A.D. in 120 mg/kg of body weight, a decisively high limit that makes us presume that it is fairly innocuous.
Glutamic acid, from which monosodium glutamate is derived, is a constituent of various animal and vegetable proteins.
Additives in potato flakes
For potato flakes, Italian (and European) standard allows only gallates and BHA (butylhydroxyanisole), separately or in combination.
The gallates (alkyl gallates) are used on a relatively smaller scale because the WHO experts have reduced the D.A.D. to just 2.5 mg/kg of body weight, while waiting experimentation results to clarify the toxicity level.
Butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), on the other hand, is an antioxidant that has been widely used for many decades, especially in potato derivatives. It is a highly stable synthetic compound, insoluble in water but easily soluble in oils and fats as well as in alcohol. This additive is also being kept under control. The D.A.D. is only 0.3 mg/kg of body weight, a correctly prudential value, in view of the fact that experimentation has highlighted its toxicity, especially as regards kidney function.
BHA has always been associated with other antioxidants, especially synergists. The maximum permitted dose is 25 mg/kg for BHA alone or in combination with gallates. Naturally, the indication of these additives present in potato flakes is not obligatory on labels of pasta and/or gnocchi, although some producers indicate it (and rightly so).
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